Contents
0 1 I 2 3 4 5 6 II 7 8 9 10 III 11 12 IV 13 14 V 15 16 17 18 19 20 VI 21 22 VII 23 24 VIII 25 26 27 IX 28 APP A B N S
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INFO
UPDATING
ERRATA
EXERCISES
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TITLE PAGE
DEDICATION
PREFACE
CONTENTS
SYMBOLS AND UNITS
ABBREVIATIONS
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 THE CONCEPT OF BIOELECTROMAGNETISM
1.2 SUBDIVISIONS OF BIOELECTROMAGNETISM
1.2.1 Division on a theoretical basis
1.2.2 Division on an anatomical basis
1.2.3 Organization of this textbook
1.3 IMPORTANCE OF BIOELECTROMAGNETISM
1.4 SHORT HISTORY OF BIOELECTROMAGNETISM
1.4.1 The first written documents and first experiments in bioelectromagnetism
1.4.2 Electric and magnetic stimulation
1.4.3 Detection of bioelectric activity
1.4.4 Modern electrophysiological studies of neural cells
1.4.5 Bioelectromagnetism
1.4.6 Theoretical contributions to bioelectromagnetism
1.4.7 Summary of the history of bioelectromagnetism
1.5 NOBEL PRIZES IN BIOELECTROMAGNETISM
PART I
ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BIOELECTROMAGNETISM
2 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF NERVE AND MUSCLE CELLS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 NERVE CELL
2.2.1 The main parts of the nerve cell
2.2.2 The cell membrane
2.2.3 The synapse
2.3 MUSCLE CELL
2.4 BIOELECTRIC FUNCTION OF THE NERVE CELL
2.5 EXCITABILITY OF NERVE CELL
2.6 THE GENERATION OF THE ACTIVATION
2.7 CONCEPTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE ACTIVATION PROCESS
2.8 CONDUCTION OF THE NERVE IMPULSE IN AN AXON
3 SUBTHRESHOLD MEMBRANE PHENOMENA
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 NERNST EQUATION
3.2.1 Electric potential and electric field
3.2.2 Diffusion
3.2.3 Nernst-Planck equation
3.2.4 Nernst potential
3.3 ORIGIN OF THE RESTING VOLTAGE
3.4 MEMBRANE WITH MULTI-ION PERMEABILITY
3.4.1 Donnan equilibrium
3.4.2 The value of the resting-voltage Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz equation
3.4.3 The reversal voltage
3.5 ION FLOW THROUGH THE MEMBRANE
3.5.1 Factors affecting ion transport through the membrane
3.5.2 Membrane ion flow in a cat motoneuron
3.5.3 Na-K pump
3.5.4 Graphical illustration of the membrane ion flow
3.6 CABLE EQUATION OF THE AXON
3.6.1 Cable model of the axon
3.6.2 The steady-state response
3.6.3 Stimulation with a step-current impulse
3.7 STRENGTH-DURATION RELATION
4 ACTIVE BEHAVIOR OF THE MEMBRANE
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 VOLTAGE-CLAMP METHOD
4.2.1 Goal of the voltage-clamp measurement
4.2.2 Space clamp
4.2.3 Voltage clamp
4.3 EXAMPLES OF RESULTS OBTAINED WITH THE VOLTAGE-CLAMP METHOD
4.3.1 Voltage clamp to sodium Nernst voltage
4.3.2 Altering the ion concentrations
4.3.3 Blocking of ionic channels with pharmaceuticals
4.4 HODGKIN-HUXLEY MEMBRANE MODEL
4.4.1 Introduction
4.4.2 Total membrane current and its components
4.4.3 Potassium conductance
4.4.4 Sodium conductance
4.4.5 Hodgkin-Huxley equations
4.4.6 Propagating nerve impulse
4.4.7 Properties of the Hodgkin-Huxley model
4.4.8 The quality of the Hodgkin-Huxley model
4.5 PATCH-CLAMP METHOD
4.5.1 Introduction
4.5.2 Patch clamp measurement techniques
4.5.3 Applications of the patch-clamp method
4.6 MODERN UNDERSTANDING OF THE IONIC CHANNELS
4.6.1 Introduction
4.6.2 Single-channel behavior
4.6.3 The ionic channel
4.6.4 Channel structure: biophysical studies
4.6.5 Channel structure: studies in molecular genetics
4.6.6 Channel structure: imaging methods
4.6.7 Ionic conductance based on single-channel conductance
5 SYNAPSE, RECEPTOR CELLS, AND BRAIN
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 SYNAPSES
5.2.1 Structure and function of the synapse
5.2.2 Excitatory and inhibitory synapses
5.2.3 Reflex arc
5.2.4 Electric model of the synapse
5.3 RECEPTOR CELLS
5.3.1 Introduction
5.3.2 Various types of receptor cells
5.3.3 The Pacinian corpuscle
5.4 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BRAIN
5.4.1 Introduction
5.4.2 Brain anatomy
5.4.3 Brain function
5.5 CRANIAL NERVES
6 THE HEART
6.1 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HEART
6.1.1 Location of the heart
6.1.2 The anatomy of the heart
6.2 ELECTRIC ACTIVATION OF THE HEART
6.2.1 Cardiac muscle cell
6.2.2 The conduction system of the heart
6.3 THE GENESIS OF THE ELECTROCARDIOGRAM
6.3.1 Activation currents in cardiac tissue
6.3.2 Depolarization wave
6.3.3 Repolarization wave
PART II
BIOELECTRIC SOURCES AND CONDUCTORS AND THEIR MODELING
7 VOLUME SOURCE AND VOLUME CONDUCTOR
7.1 THE CONCEPTS OF VOLUME SOURCE AND VOLUME CONDUCTOR
7.2 BIOELECTRIC SOURCE AND ITS ELECTRIC FIELD
7.2.1 Definition of the preconditions
7.2.2 Volume source in a homogeneous volume conductor
7.2.3 Volume source in an inhomogeneous volume conductor
7.2.4 Quasistatic conditions
7.3 THE CONCEPT OF MODELING
7.3.1 The purpose of modeling
7.3.2 Basic models of the volume source
7.3.3 Basic models of the volume conductor
7.4 THE HUMAN BODY AS A VOLUME CONDUCTOR
7.4.1 Tissue resistivities
7.4.2 Modeling the head
7.4.3 Modeling the thorax
7.5 FORWARD AND INVERSE PROBLEM
7.5.1 Forward problem
7.5.2 Inverse problem
7.5.3 Solvability of the inverse problem
7.5.4 Possible approaches to the solution of the inverse problem
7.5.5 Summary
8 SOURCE-FIELD MODELS
8.1 INTRODUCTION
8.2 SOURCE MODELS
8.2.1 Monopole
8.2.2 Dipole
8.2.3 Single isolated fiber: transmembrane current source
8.2.4 Discussion of transmembrane current source
8.3 EQUIVALENT VOLUME SOURCE DENSITY
8.3.1 Equivalent monopole density
8.3.2 Equivalent dipole density
8.3.3 Lumped equivalent sources: Tripole model
8.3.4 Mathematical basis for double-layer source (uniform bundle)
8.4 RIGOROUS FORMULATION
8.4.1 Field of a single cell of arbitrary shape
8.4.2 Field of an isolated cylindrical fiber
8.5 MATHEMATICAL BASIS FOR MACROSCOPIC VOLUME SOURCE DENSITY (FLOW SOURCE DENSITY)
AND IMPRESSED CURRENT DENSITY
8.6 SUMMARY OF THE SOURCE-FIELD MODELS
9 BIDOMAIN MODEL OF MULTICELLULAR VOLUME CONDUCTORS
9.1 INTRODUCTION
9.2 CARDIAC MUSCLE CONSIDERED AS A CONTINUUM
9.3 MATHEMATICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE BIDOMAIN AND ANISOTROPY
9.4 ONE-DIMENSIONAL CABLE: A ONE-DIMENSIONAL BIDOMAIN
9.5 SOLUTION FOR POINT-CURRENT SOURCE IN A THREE-DIMENSIONAL, ISOTROPIC BIDOMAIN
9.6 FOUR-ELECTRODE IMPEDANCE METHOD APPLIED TO AN ISOTROPIC BIDOMAIN
10 ELECTRONIC NEURON MODELS
10.1 INTRODUCTION
10.1.1 Electronic modeling of excitable tissue
10.1.2 Neurocomputers
10.2 CLASSIFICATION OF NEURON MODELS
10.3 MODELS DESCRIBING THE FUNCTION OF THE MEMBRANE
10.3.1 The Lewis membrane model
10.3.2 The Roy membrane model
10.4 MODELS DESCRIBING THE CELL AS AN INDEPENDENT UNIT
10.4.1 The Lewis neuron model
10.4.2 The Harmon neuron model
10.5 A MODEL DESCRIBING THE PROPAGATION OF ACTION PULSE IN AXON
10.6 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT REALIZATIONS
PART III
THEORETICAL METHODS IN BIOELECTROMAGNETISM
11 THEORETICAL METHODS FOR ANALYZING VOLUME SOURCES AND VOLUME CONDUCTORS
11.1 INTRODUCTION
11.2 SOLID-ANGLE THEOREM
11.2.1 Inhomogeneous double layer
11.2.2 Uniform double layer
11.3 MILLER-GESELOWITZ MODEL
11.4 LEAD VECTOR
11.4.1 Definition of the lead vector
11.4.2 Extending the concept of lead vector
11.4.3 Example of lead vector applications: Einthoven, Frank, and Burger triangles
11.5 IMAGE SURFACE
11.5.1 The definition of the image surface
11.5.2 Points located inside the volume conductor
11.5.3 Points located inside the image surface
11.5.4 Application of the image surface to the synthesis of leads
11.5.5 Image surface of homogeneous human torso
11.5.6 Recent image-surface studies
11.6 LEAD FIELD
11.6.1 Concepts used in connection with lead fields
11.6.2 Definition of the lead field
11.6.3 Reciprocity theorem: the historical approach
11.6.4 Lead field theory: the historical approach
11.6.5 Field-theoretic proof of the reciprocity theorem
11.6.6 Summary of the lead field theory equations
11.6.7 Ideal lead field of a lead detecting the equivalent electric dipole of a volume source
11.6.8 Application of lead field theory to the Einthoven limb leads
11.6.9 Synthesization of the ideal lead field for the detection of the electric dipole moment of a volume source
11.6.10 Special properties of electric lead fields
11.6.11 Relationship between the image surface and the lead field
11.7 GABOR-NELSON THEOREM
11.7.1 Determination of the dipole moment
11.7.2 The location of the equivalent dipole
11.8 SUMMARY OF THE THEORETICAL METHODS FOR ANALYZING VOLUME SOURCES AND VOLUME CONDUCTORS
12 THEORY OF BIOMAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS
12.1 BIOMAGNETIC FIELD
12.2 NATURE OF THE BIOMAGNETIC SOURCES
12.3 RECIPROCITY THEOREM FOR MAGNETIC FIELDS
12.3.1 The form of the magnetic lead field
12.3.2 The source of the magnetic field
12.3.3 Summary of the lead field theoretical equations for electric and magnetic measurements
12.4 THE MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT OF A VOLUME SOURCE
12.5 IDEAL LEAD FIELD OF A LEAD DETECTING THE EQUIVALENT MAGNETIC DIPOLE OF A VOLUME SOURCE
12.6 SYNTHESIZATION OF THE IDEAL LEAD FIELD FOR THE DETECTION OF
THE MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT OF A VOLUME SOURCE
12.7 COMPARISON OF THE LEAD FIELDS OF IDEAL LEADS FOR DETECTING THE ELECTRIC AND
THE MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENTS OF A VOLUME SOURCE
12.7.1 The bipolar lead system for detecting the electric dipole moment
12.7.2 The bipolar lead system for detecting the magnetic dipole moment
12.8 THE RADIAL AND TANGENTIAL SENSITIVITIES OF THE LEAD SYSTEMS DETECTING THE ELECTRIC AND
MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENTS OF A VOLUME SOURCE
12.8.1 Sensitivity of the electric lead
12.8.2 Sensitivity of the magnetic lead
12.9 SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE MAGNETIC LEAD FIELDS
12.10 THE INDEPENDENCE OF BIOELECTRIC AND BIOMAGNETIC FIELDS AND MEASUREMENTS
12.10.1 Independence of flow and vortex sources
12.10.2 Lead field theoretic explanation of the independence of bioelectric and biomagnetic fields and measurements
12.11 SENSITIVITY DISTRIBUTION OF BASIC MAGNETIC LEADS
12.11.1 The equations for calculating the sensitivity distribution of basic magnetic leads
12.11.2 Lead field current density of a unipolar lead of a single-coil magnetometer
12.11.3 The effect of the distal coil
12.11.4 Lead field current density of a bipolar lead
PART IV
ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC MEASUREMENT OF THE ELECTRIC ACTIVITY OF NEURAL TISSUE
13 ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPY
13.1 INTRODUCTION
13.2 THE BRAIN AS A BIOELECTRIC GENERATOR
13.3 EEG LEAD SYSTEMS
13.4 SENSITIVITY DISTRIBUTION OF EEG ELECTRODES
13.5 THE BEHAVIOR OF THE EEG SIGNAL
13.6 THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EEG DIAGNOSIS
14 MAGNETOENCEPHALOGRAPHY
14.1 THE BRAIN AS A BIOMAGNETIC GENERATOR
14.2 SENSITIVITY DISTRIBUTION OF MEG-LEADS
14.2.1 Sensitivity calculation method
14.2.2 Single-coil magnetometer
14.2.3 Planar gradiometer
14.3 COMPARISON OF THE EEG AND MEG HALF-SENSITIVITY VOLUMES
14.4 SUMMARY
PART V
ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC MEASUREMENT OF THE ELECTRIC ACTIVITY OF THE HEART
15 TWELVE-LEAD ECG SYSTEM
15.1 LIMB LEADS
15.2 ECG SIGNAL
15.2.1 The signal produced by the activation front
15.2.2 Formation of the ECG signal
15.3 WILSON CENTRAL TERMINAL
15.4 GOLDBERGER AUGMENTED LEADS
15.5 PRECORDIAL LEADS
15.6 MODIFICATIONS OF THE 12-LEAD SYSTEM
15.7 THE INFORMATION CONTENT OF THE 12-LEAD SYSTEM
16 VECTORCARDIOGRAPHIC LEAD SYSTEMS
16.1 INTRODUCTION
16.2 UNCORRECTED VECTORCARDIOGRAPHIC LEAD SYSTEMS
16.2.1 Monocardiogram by Mann
16.2.2 Lead systems based on rectangular body axes
16.2.3 Akulinichev VCG lead systems
16.3 CORRECTED VECTORCARDIOGRAPHIC LEAD SYSTEMS
16.3.1 Frank lead system
16.3.2 McFee-Parungao lead system
16.3.3 SVEC III lead system
16.3.4 Fischmann-Barber-Weiss lead system
16.3.5 Nelson lead system
16.4 DISCUSSION ON VECTORCARDIOGRAPHIC LEADS
16.4.1 The interchangeability of vectorcardiographic systems
16.4.2 Properties of various vectorcardiographic lead systems
17 OTHER ECG LEAD SYSTEMS
17.1 MOVING DIPOLE
17.2 MULTIPLE DIPOLES
17.3 MULTIPOLE
17.4 SUMMARY OF THE ECG LEAD SYSTEMS
18 DISTORTION FACTORS IN THE ECG
18.1 INTRODUCTION
18.2 EFFECT OF THE INHOMOGENEITY OF THE THORAX
18.3 BRODY EFFECT
18.3.1 Description of the Brody effect
18.3.2 Effect of the ventricular volume
18.3.3 Effect of the blood resistivity
18.3.4 Integrated effects (model studies)
18.4 EFFECT OF RESPIRATION
18.5 EFFECT OF ELECTRODE LOCATION
19 THE BASIS OF ECG DIAGNOSIS
19.1 PRINCIPLE OF THE ECG DIAGNOSIS
19.1.1 On the possible solutions to the cardiac inverse problem
19.1.2 Bioelectric principles in ECG diagnosis
19.2 APPLICATIONS OF ECG DIAGNOSIS
19.3 DETERMINATION OF THE ELECTRIC AXIS OF THE HEART
19.4 CARDIAC RHYTHM DIAGNOSIS
19.4.1 Differentiating the P, QRS. and T waves
19.4.2 Supraventricular rhythms
19.4.3 Ventricular arrhythmias
19.5 DISORDERS IN THE ACTIVATION SEQUENCE
19.5.1 Atrioventricular conduction variations
19.5.2 Bundle-branch block
19.5.3 Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome
19.6 INCREASE IN WALL THICKNESS OR SIZE OF ATRIA AND VENTRICLES
19.6.1 Definition
19.6.2 Atrial hypertrophy
19.6.3 Ventricular hypertrophy
19.7 MYOCARDIAL ISCHEMIA AND INFARCTION
20 MAGNETOCARDIOGRAPHY
20.1 INTRODUCTION
20.2 BASIC METHODS IN MAGNETOCARDIOGRAPHY
20.2.1 Measurement of the equivalent magnetic dipole
20.2.2 The magnetic field-mapping method
20.2.3 Other methods of magnetocardiography
20.3 METHODS FOR DETECTING THE MAGNETIC HEART VECTOR
20.3.1 The source and conductor models and the basic form of the lead system for measuring the magnetic dipole
20.3.2 Baule-McFee lead system
20.3.3 XYZ lead system
20.3.4 ABC lead system
20.3.5 Unipositional lead system
20.4 SENSITIVITY DISTRIBUTION OF BASIC MCG LEADS
20.4.1 Heart- and thorax models and the magnetometer
20.4.2 Unipolar measurement
20.4.3 Bipolar measurement
20.5 GENERATION OF THE MCG SIGNAL FROM THE ELECTRIC ACTIVATION OF THE HEART
20.6 ECG-MCG RELATIONSHIP
20.7 CLINICAL APPLICATION OF MAGNETOCARDIOGRAPHY
20.7.1 Advantages of magnetocardiography
20.7.2 Disadvantages of magnetocardiography
20.7.3 Clinical application
20.7.4 Basis for the increase in diagnostic performance by biomagnetic measurement
20.7.5 General conclusions on magnetocardiography
PART VI
ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC STIMULATION OF NEURAL TISSUE
21 FUNCTIONAL ELECTRIC STIMULATION
21.1 INTRODUCTION
21.2 SIMULATION OF EXCITATION OF A MYELINATED FIBER
21.3 STIMULATION OF AN UNMYELINATED AXON
21.4 MUSCLE RECRUITMENT
21.5 ELECTRODE-TISSUE INTERFACE
21.6 ELECTRODE MATERIALS AND SHAPES
22 MAGNETIC STIMULATION OF NEURAL TISSUE
22.1 INTRODUCTION
22.2 THE DESIGN OF STIMULATOR COILS
22.3 CURRENT DISTRIBUTION IN MAGNETIC STIMULATION
22.4 STIMULUS PULSE
22.5 ACTIVATION OF EXCITABLE TISSUE BY TIME-VARYING MAGNETIC FIELDS
22.6 APPLICATION AREAS OF MAGNETIC STIMULATION OF NEURAL TISSUE
PART VII
ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC STIMULATION OF THE HEART
23 CARDIAC PACING
23.1 STIMULATION OF CARDIAC MUSCLE
23.2 INDICATIONS FOR CARDIAC PACING
23.3 CARDIAC PACEMAKER
23.3.1 Pacemaker principles
23.3.2 Control of impulses
23.3.3 Dual chamber multiprogrammable
23.3.4 Rate modulation
23.3.5 Anti-tachycardia/fibrillation
23.4 SITE OF STIMULATION
23.5 EXCITATION PARAMETERS AND CONFIGURATION
23.6 IMPLANTABLE ENERGY SOURCES
23.7 ELECTRODES
23.8 MAGNETIC STIMULATION OF CARDIAC MUSCLE
24 CARDIAC DEFIBRILLATION
24.1 INTRODUCTION
24.2 MECHANISMS OF FIBRILLATION
24.2.1 Reentry
24.2.2 Reentry with and without anatomic obstacles
24.3 THEORIES OF DEFIBRILLATION
24.3.1 Introduction
24.3.2 Critical mass hypothesis
24.3.3 One-dimensional activation/defibrillation model
24.4 DEFIBRILLATOR DEVICES
PART VIII
MEASUREMENT OF THE INTRINSIC ELECTRIC PROPERTIES OF BIOLOGICAL TISSUES
25 IMPEDANCE PLETHYSMOGRAPHY
25.1 INTRODUCTION
25.2 BIOELECTRIC BASIS OF IMPEDANCE PLETHYSMOGRAPHY
25.2.1 Relationship between the principles of impedance measurement and bioelectric signal measurement
25.2.2 Tissue impedance
25.3 IMPEDANCE CARDIOGRAPHY
25.3.1 Measurement of the impedance of the thorax
25.3.2 Simplified model of the impedance of the thorax
25.3.3 Determining changes in blood volume in the thorax
25.3.4 Determining the stroke volume
25.3.5 Discussion of the stroke volume calculation method
25.4 THE ORIGIN OF IMPEDANCE SIGNAL IN IMPEDANCE CARDIOGRAPHY
25.4.1 Model studies
25.4.2 Animal and human studies
25.4.3 Determining the systolic time intervals from the impedance
25.4.4 The effect of the electrodes
25.4.5 Accuracy of the impedance cardiography
25.5 OTHER APPLICATIONS OF IMPEDANCE PLETHYSMOGRAPHY
25.5.1 Peripheral blood flow
25.5.2 Cerebral blood flow
25.5.3 Intrathoracic fluid volume
25.5.4 Determination of body composition
25.5.5 Other applications
25.6 DISCUSSION
26 IMPEDANCE TOMOGRAPHY
26.1 INTRODUCTION
26.2 IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENT METHODS
26.2.1 Electric measurement of the impedance
26.2.2 Electromagnetic measurement of the electric impedance
26.3 IMAGE RECONSTRUCTION
27 THE ELECTRODERMAL RESPONSE
27.1 INTRODUCTION
27.2 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE SKIN
27.3 ELECTRODERMAL MEASURES
27.4 MEASUREMENT SITES AND CHARACTERISTIC SIGNALS
27.5 THEORY OF EDR
27.6 APPLICATIONS
PART IX
OTHER BIOELECTROMAGNETIC PHENOMENA
28 THE ELECTRIC SIGNALS ORIGINATING IN THE EYE
28.1 INTRODUCTION
28.2 THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE EYE AND ITS NEURAL PATHWAYS
28.2.1 The major components of the eye
28.2.2 The retina
28.3 ELECTRO-OCULOGRAM
28.3.1 Introduction
28.3.2 Saccadic response
28.3.3 Nystagmography
28.4 ELECTRORETINOGRAM
28.4.1 Introduction
28.4.2 The volume conductor influence on the ERG
28.4.3 Ragnar Granit contribution
APPENDIXES
APPENDIX A
CONSISTENT SYSTEM OF RECTANGULAR AND SPHERICAL COORDINATES FOR
ELECTROCARDIOLOGY AND MAGNETOCARDIOLOGY
A.1 INTRODUCTION
A.2 REQUIREMENTS FOR A CONSISTENT SYSTEM OF COORDINATES
A.3 ALIGNMENT OF THE COORDINATE SYSTEM WITH THE BODY
A.4 CONSISTENT SPHERICAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS
A.5 COMPARISON OF THE CONSISTENT COORDINATE SYSTEM AND THE AHA-SYSTEM
A.6 RECTANGULAR ABC-COORDINATES
APPENDIX B
THE APPLICATION OF MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS IN BIOELECTROMAGNETISM
B.1 INTRODUCTION
B.2 MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS UNDER FREE SPACE CONDITIONS
B.3 MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS FOR FINITE CONDUCTING MEDIA
B.4 SIMPLIFICATION OF MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS IN PHYSIOLOGICAL PREPARATIONS
B.5 MAGNETIC VECTOR POTENTIAL AND ELECTRIC SCALAR POTENTIAL IN THE REGION OUTSIDE THE SOURCES
B.6 STIMULATION WITH ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS
B.6.1 Stimulation with electric field
B.6.2 Stimulation with magnetic field
B.7 SIMPLIFIED MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS IN PHYSIOLOGICAL PREPARATIONS IN THE REGION OUTSIDE THE SOURCES
NAME INDEX
SUBJECT INDEX